King Tutankhamun remains one of the most well-known rulers of the ancient world, capturing global fascination since the discovery of his tomb in 1922. Given his prominence, it is no surprise that a wealth of scientific studies has attempted to determine his health status and cause of death. Over the years, various medical hypotheses have emerged, ranging from genetic disorders and infectious diseases to physical trauma—including the possibility of murder—or even tumors. However, many of these theories are based on limited evidence, often relying on secondary sources. This article critically examines these proposed diagnoses, considering both historical and modern scientific analyses.

Early Examinations of the Mummy

Tutankhamun’s mummy was first examined in 1925 by Howard Carter, Douglas Derry, and Saley Bey Hamdi, three years after its discovery in the Valley of the Kings (KV62). The examination took place in the tomb of Seti II (KV15), after which the fragile remains were returned to the outermost coffin. For decades, the king’s body received less attention than the treasures buried alongside him. Reports from Carter and his colleagues primarily focused on the unwrapping process and the mummy’s external appearance rather than providing in-depth medical analysis. However, it was noted that Tutankhamun’s embalming process was highly unusual compared to other royal mummies of the 18th Dynasty. His body was heavily coated in resin, which made examination difficult, and his mummified penis was preserved in an erect position—an anomaly that has sparked speculation about its significance.

Over the following decades, the mummy was examined only twice in official scientific settings. In 1968, R.G. Harrison, an anatomist from the University of Manchester, conducted the first radiological assessment. A decade later, James Harris, a Michigan-based dentist, focused on obtaining high-quality X-rays of the pharaoh’s teeth. More advanced analyses did not occur until 2005, when a multi-slice CT scan was performed, providing detailed insights into the mummy’s condition. This was followed by further studies involving DNA testing, though the validity of some results has been debated.

Determining Age at Death and Physical Stature

One of the key points of interest in studying Tutankhamun’s remains has been determining his age at death. Based on epiphyseal fusion and the eruption of the third molar, early estimates placed his age between 17 and 19 years. Leek (1977) suggested a younger age of 16 or 17, arguing that ancient Egyptians experienced earlier bone development. More recently, Hawass et al. (2009, 2010) reaffirmed that he likely died at 19 years old, making him one of Egypt’s youngest rulers.

Tutankhamun’s height has also been widely debated. Direct measurements of the mummy placed his height at 1.59 to 1.61 meters (approximately 5 feet 2 to 5 feet 3 inches). However, given the disarticulated state of the body, some researchers, using statistical models, estimated that he may have stood around 1.68 meters (5 feet 6 inches) in life.

Theories on the Cause of Death

Many theories have been proposed to explain Tutankhamun’s premature death. Some of the most prominent include:

1. Metabolic Disorders and Genetic Conditions: Some researchers have linked his appearance in artwork to possible genetic disorders. The Amarna-style depictions of his father, Akhenaten, show exaggerated features such as elongated limbs and a prominent belly. Some have suggested that Tutankhamun may have suffered from similar conditions, possibly related to Marfan syndrome or other congenital disorders. However, there is no definitive evidence to confirm this.

2. Infectious Diseases: Helck (1971) proposed that Tutankhamun’s death, along with that of his potential relative Smenkhkare, may have been linked to a plague outbreak during the reign of Amenhotep III and Akhenaten. Other scholars, such as Brown (1993), have suggested tuberculosis as a potential cause, based on skeletal and historical evidence.

3. Trauma and Injury: One of the most widely debated theories concerns a severe leg fracture, which some scholars believe may have led to a fatal infection. The 2005 CT scan revealed a fracture in the left femur, suggesting that an accident or fall could have caused significant trauma. Whether this injury occurred before or after death remains uncertain.

4. Murder Theories: Some early examinations suggested signs of a skull fracture, leading to speculation that the young pharaoh may have been assassinated. However, later CT scans revealed that the skull damage likely resulted from the embalming process or post-mortem manipulation.

5. Tumors and Other Medical Conditions: El-Mahdy (1999) suggested that Tutankhamun may have suffered from a slow-growing brain tumor, which eventually led to his death. Doherty (2002) even speculated that the young king had meningioma, a type of brain tumor. However, modern CT scans have found no definitive evidence of such conditions.

Post-Mortem Damage and Controversy

One of the greatest challenges in determining Tutankhamun’s cause of death is the significant damage his body has suffered both in antiquity and in modern times. Some reports suggest that between 1925 and 1968, possibly during World War II, the mummy was disturbed unofficially. Damage to the ribcage, eye sockets, and the apparent detachment of certain body parts raise questions about whether external interference played a role in altering the body’s condition.

Furthermore, Tutankhamun’s mummy was dramatically disarticulated when Carter and his team forcibly removed the golden adornments attached to the body. This process resulted in the destruction of some anatomical features, complicating modern attempts to analyze the remains accurately.

The Ongoing Mystery

Despite nearly a century of study, there is still no definitive answer to how Tutankhamun died. The mummy’s severe post-mortem alterations make it difficult to reach conclusive medical diagnoses. While some theories, such as a skull fracture or poisoning, have been ruled out, others—like a fatal leg injury or genetic disorders—remain plausible but unproven.

What is clear is that technological advancements, such as CT scanning and DNA analysis, have revolutionized our understanding of ancient remains. These tools allow researchers to revisit older studies with greater accuracy, refining our knowledge of one of history’s most enigmatic figures.

King Tutankhamun’s remains continue to be a focal point of medical and archaeological research. His premature death at around 19 years old, combined with the opulence of his tomb and his connection to Akhenaten’s revolutionary reign, has ensured his place in history. While no single theory has been universally accepted as the cause of his death, ongoing studies may one day solve this ancient mystery. The case of Tutankhamun highlights the complexities of paleopathology—how a single individual, examined repeatedly over time, can yield varied and sometimes contradictory results.

Future research, utilizing more refined DNA analysis and imaging technology, may eventually uncover the truth behind the untimely demise of this young pharaoh. Until then, the legend of King Tutankhamun, much like his tomb, remains shrouded in mystery.